ACCELERATING PACE OF CHANGE: Technological innovation, computing power, information in scientific journals, global population, environmental change and many other aspects of modern life are undergoing rapid if not exponential increases. This rate of scientific and technological change is increasing human opportunity but also social and environmental risk. We have become used to this acceleration of history, as surprising technological advances become commonplace news items. However, many of these changes are driven by corporate motivations and are often already developed before their full ethical consequences can be properly debated. Each technological advance is progressive from the previous technologies, so there is a certain "spike" in the future beyond which prediction may be impossible.

AEROBE: (Greek: aer 'air') Any microorganism that lives and grows on free oxygen (Greek: aer air + bios life).

ANARCHISM: The term is often used pejoratively, with associations of violent lawlessness. But it also has positive meanings having to do with the attempt to live without government, coercion or any uniformity of practice imposed from above. In politics, the doctrine is difficult to carry out in practice when defense requires some form of governmental organization. In individual life, however, it can be more practical and some have succeeded in living quite well while ignoring government and other coercive institutions.

ARTIFICIAL LIFE: Software and hardware which has similar characteristics to living organisms. The ‘top-down’ approach attempts to combine characteristics of life such as perception and mobility (robotics), with thinking abilities (artificial intelligence). Robots are forms of artificial life, and often made out to be quite cute, for example the camera and gyroscope-faced ‘Cog’ and ‘Kismet’, or the insect-like heat-sensing six-legged ‘Genghis’… but endowed with artificial intelligence in a terrain of unmanned vehicles and autonomous weapons it is a different story. The opposing mode of research into artificial life is the ‘bottom-up’ approach, which allows artificial life to create itself through the powers of evolution. Using nature as the model, programs such as ‘genetic algorithms’ and ‘cellular automata’ are created with the ability to replicate and therefore adapt to their software environment by natural selection. Soon they have changed into complex systems beyond the expectations of their creators. Examples of early experiments on the evolution of artificial organisms include AntFarm, PolyWorld, Ramps, L-systems and AL world. The other computer-world supporting

AUTOTROPHS: (Greek autos 'self' + trophe 'food') Are self-sufficient organisms that are capable of obtaining their energy for life from exclusively inorganic materials, water, and some energy source such as sunlight (photosynthesizing plants) or capture their energy from converting inorganic chemical reactions involving iron or sulfur (autotrophic bacteria) (Greek autos self + trophe food) artificial life is of course the internet, with its computer viruses, worms and intelligent agents. Software must be constantly created to act as an immune system against this internet environment - infection can be prevented using intranets and firewalls, and cured with virus detection and viral predators. But the next generation of genetic algorithms and artificial neural networks, and new computing technologies such as molecular electronics and quantum computing, are likely to greatly magnify powers of replication, adaptation, learning and even perhaps self-awareness in self-evolving systems. The fundamental difference between natural selection in organisms/cells and that of cellular automata is that biological evolution selects among random variations, whereas variation in artificial life may be heuristically directed. The potential ethical danger from this is that artificial life can evolve at an incredibly greater speed than any biological system. The internet provides a very difficult-to-control habitat with a rich informational database, and could perhaps eventually support a very diverse form of cyber-ecology or central intelligence.

BACTERIA: (Greek: bakterion 'small stick') Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are small (between 1 and 10 microns) single-celled microorganisms whose genetic material is not enclosed in a special nuclear membrane. For this reason, bacteria are called procaryotes, from the Greek meaning prenucleus. Bacterial cells generally appear in one of several shapes; bacillus (rodlike), coccus (spherical or ovoid) spiral (corkscrew) or vibrios (comma-shaped) being the most common shapes. Individual bacteria may form pairs, chains, clusters, or other groupings and generally reproduce by a process called binary fission; that is, dividing into two equal daughter cells. For nutrition, most bacteria use organic chemicals, which in nature is derived from either dead or living organisms, however, some can manufacture their own food by photosynthesis and others from inorganic substances. Life on Earth as we know it would not exist if it were not for microorganisms because the microorganisms, bacteria mostly, play a key role in recycling essential nutrients when they decompose organic waste and dead plants and animals. Only a minority of all bacteria is pathogenic causing disease, while the vast majority benefit humans, other animals and plants (Greek bakterion meaning small stick)

BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT: A region of very high endemism where threats to habitat integrity or of extinction are also high. As human activities are drastically accelerating extinction worldwide and only limited resources are available to conserve many endangered organisms, this concept was proposed to focus effort and funding on areas where there might be the best possible conservation results. Conservation International (http://www.conservation.org/xp/CIWEB/home) leads efforts to mobilize international public and private resources to support conservation of biodiversity hotspots with involvement of local communities. (RW)

BIOENGINEERING: The study of the relationship between living organisms and machinery; for example, the industrial application of the results of biologic research in the field of recombinant DNA technology which permits the production of synthetic hormones, enzymes, therapeutics etc. (See BIOPHYSICS,

BIOTECH, BIOTECHNOLOGY, GENETIC ENGINEERING). (IP)

BIOETHICAL MATURITY: Term coined by Darryl Macer in 1994. A mature society is one which has developed some of the social and behavioural tools to balance bioethical principles, and apply them to new situations raised by technology. We could call the bioethical maturity of a society the ability to balance the benefits and risks of applications of biological or medical technology. It is also reflected in the extent to which the public views are incorporated into policy-making while respecting the duties of society to ensure individual's informed choice. Awareness of concerns and risks should be maintained, and debated, for it may lessen the possibility of misuse of these technologies. Other important ideals of bioethics such as autonomy and justice need to be protected and included in the benefit/risk balancing which is important for the ethical application of biotechnology in medicine. Concern about technology should be valued as discretion that is basic to increasing the bioethical maturity of a society, rather than being feared as a barrier to the implementation of new technology. (DM)

BIOETHICS: 1. the study of life ethics. A word coined in the later part of the 20th century to describe the various rights and wrongs of new scientific and technological procedures and discoveries (in particular in response to human experimentation during World War II) which were seen to bear a direct and significant impact upon humane survival". 2. Rules of conduct in scientific research and involves many disciplines and skills such as law, philosophy, theology medicine, science and technological research [derived from Greek bio- life and ethicos moral]. 3. Love of Life. (see BIOSCIENCE ETHICS). (IP+DM
BACTERIOPHAGE: Modified bacteriophages, like the phage lambda, are used as vectors to clone genomic DNA from different sources (i.e., mammalian DNA) in their natural hosts (E. Coli, also modified), and construct genomic libraries. (GK)

BIOINFORMATICS: The acquisition, management, analysis, storing and processing of biological information; such as, gene sequences, genomics, biological structures, pharmaceutical chemicals, taxonomy, biodiversity and environment. Biomolecules such as DNA and proteins have large amounts of information of biological interest. DNA is called the blue print of life and proteins are the building blocks of life. Developed out of a combination of computer science, information technology and genetics to determine and analyze genetic/biological information, and these technologies can be now used as a scientific basis on which ethical decisions can be made. Origin - the first bioinformatic databases were constructed a few years after the first protein sequences began to become available. The first protein sequence reported was that of bovine insulin in 1956, consisting of 51 residues. Nearly a decade later, the first nuclei acid sequence was reported, that of yeast alanine tRNA with 77 bases. Soon thereafter Dayhoff gathered all the available sequence data to create the first bioinformatic database. Organizations in biomolecular databases have two goals: (i) to get valuable and practical information out of these databases (ii) to integrate information from diverse sources. DNA databases are stored in GenBank Company in USA and also in the European Molecular Biology Laboratory in Germany. Similar protein sequence databases are also available.
BIOLISTICS: A useful method to transport DNA into any organ, cell using a Particle gun/biolistic gun. Can also transfer DNA into animal tissues, plant cells and fungal as well as into mitochondria . (JA)

BIOMAGNIFICATION: The increase in toxicity of chemically stable synthetic human-made compounds which resist the natural detoxifying processes of excretion and decay, so the poison accumulates exponentially in the animal body as it progress up the food chain (see Food Web) and, through the process of magnification, the concentrations of any single pollutant can be millions of times greater in the body of a top predator (carnivores like the eagle, tiger or human) compared with the surrounding environment. For example, the biomagnification of PCBs in fish can be concentrated to reach an accumulation factor exceeding 250,000 times that in the water

BIOPIRACY: 1. The use of nature or traditional knowledge and/or medicines for modern use without consent and/or acknowledgment of their origins 2. theft of biological knowledge for profit. Origin - the first patent was granted to General Electric Company in 1971 for what the "inventor" - Anand Mohan Chakravarty - described as "I simply shuffled genes, changing bacteria that already existed." This stimulated a rush by US corporations to understand, and ultimately, to patent and claim ownership of existent and modified life forms. From this behavior the term "biopiracy" was coined (see web site at http://www.cqs.com/biopiracy.htm). (IP)
BIOPROSPECTING: Investigative collection of living organisms with the aim of uncovering potentially useful applications, for example biomimetic design features, unique genetic information, food and crop varieties, indigenous medicines, and especially with reference to the potential presence of pharmaceutically-active alkaloids. Conservationists and developers today find agreement over the value of biodiversity protection, at least on practical if not ideological grounds. Less than 1 or 2% of Earth's organisms have been examined - the investigation and conservation of global biodiversity remaining one of the last great unexplored and undervalued realms of scientific discovery. (See BIODIVERSITY, BIOINFORMATICS, BIOMIMETICS, BIOPIRACY, BIORESOURCES) (MP)

CHAOS THEORY: The notion in the natural sciences that a very small change in a system may have massive, unpredictable consequences. Memorably summed up by the 'Butterfly effect' in which it is possible, though of course, not certain, that the beating of a butterfly's wings in one part of the world may lead, a few weeks later, to a storm thousands of miles away. The indeterminacy of HEISENBERG S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE (q.v.) and chaos theory effectively ended belief in a Newtonian, determinate world-view in which an accurate description of a system allows its future to be predicted absolutely. Nowadays, for example, scientists predict that however accurate our measuring instruments and powerful our computers we will never be able to predict local weather variations more than a couple of weeks ahead. (MR)
CHEMOSYNTHESIS: The formation or synthesis of organic nutritive substances in plants or animals by the use of energy derived from simple chemical reactions. For example, anaerobic bacteria such as the methanogens which live within the decaying sediments of bogs and marshes and produce methane gas. (See ANAEROBE, PHOTOSYNTHESIS) (MP)

CHIMERA: An organism formed by the aggregation of cells taken from different genotypes. Chimeric embryos may occur naturally or artificially. An inter-species chimera is when the cells are from different species. Combination of unrelated species, ancient mythical gods with human-lion, human horse, human monkey, human-elephant head combinations in Hindu and Greek mythology. Insertion of foreign animal genes in plant/human in a particular species. Cell fusion of two species, Sheep-goat resulting in a Geep. See GEEP.
CODE OF HAMMURABI: (actually should be Hammurapi, based on Ugaritic texts) Major lawcode of ancient Mesopotamia. This lawcode is named for Hammurapi, the king 6th king of the first dynasty of Babylon (1792-50 bce). On the stele of Hammurapi, the king is protrayed as receiving the lawcode from Shamash, the sun god. The laws in the code demonstrate three levels in society: the awilum (free man), the mushkenum (the dependant, of somewhat lower status than the awilum), and the wardum (slave). Each is judged according to his social class, and greater damages are awarded to an awilum who was injured than a mushkenum or wardum who was injured. The principle of "an eye for an eye" is applied to the extreme in this lawcode. Many of the cases in the code of Hammurapi are dealt with in the Torah as well, and so, this lawcode has become a popular source of comparison between Babylonian law and Jewish law. The text of the code is written in the Babylonian dialect of the Akkadian language. (AG) pig head human or a pig? It dilutes the concept of speciation. (DM, JA)
COLLECTIVE MEMORY: The "meme pool", or shared and combined experiences and memories of the sentient animals on Earth. Although each of us has a unique set of memories, we also have shared memories of our historical record and our collective achievements and mistakes. The expansion of this shared consciousness through the promotion of learning can help to guide us towards a more ethical future in which previous human and environmental tragedies are not perpetuated.
CONSILIENCE: The joining together of knowledge and information across disciplines to create a unified framework of understanding. The concept was developed by Harvard biologist E.O. Wilson in a book named Consilience: the unity of knowledge (1997). (See E.O. WILSON, HOLISTIC THINKING) (RW)
CULTURAL EVOLUTION: Culture evolves and technology progresses, with cultural evolutionary mechanisms analogous but different to those of biological evolution. Investigators of evolutionary aspects of culture have included philosophers (e.g. Lewis Morgan, Arnold Toynbee, James Baldwin, Thomas Kuhn, Daniel Dennett, Jared Diamond), social Darwinists (Herbert Spencer), linguists (Noam Chomsky, Steven Pinker), environmentalists (E.F. Schumacher), biologists (Richard Dawkins), sociobiologists (F.T. Cloak, E.O. Wilson) and technologists (Eric Drexler, Marvin Minsky). Cultural evolution differs from biological evolution in its fast rate, directedness, and Lamarckian ‘copy the product’ inheritance among other things. The comparison with genes has been facilitated by the concept of the meme, or cultural replicator, and its associated field of study, memetics. Ideas and cultures compete for survival, evolve, have different fecundity, copying fidelity and longevity, and may go extinct. Many languages, cultures and traditions are being lost to the uncompromising march of modernization, globalization, westernization and urbanization. More ‘modern’ may not equate with ‘better’, as in the case of indigenous peoples uprooted from an eco-centric tradition and absorbed into the slums and shanty-towns of big cities. Although excessive cultural diversity allows for fundamentalism and inequality, excessive globalization results in the dilution and homogenization of world culture. A tolerant, multicultural middle path is preferable.
DOMINANT PARADIGM: The prevailing epistemological framework or world-view, entrenched in place by inertia, tradition and established institutions. The current dominant social paradigm is techno-centric, militaristic and capitalistic, based on hard energy and hard power, treats economics as an end in itself, condones competitive, complex and fast lifestyles, places a low value on nature by destroying it for economic growth, and places a low value on human compassion evidenced by a lack of concern for other species, other people or for future generations
ECOPHYSIOLOGY: The branch of biology investigating the physiological structures, functions and adaptations which enable organisms to survive in interaction with their ecosystem and physical environment. (MP)
ECOPSYCHOLOGY: Psychological study of the human mind in relationship, interaction and affinity with nature. It has been a long-held theme that divorce from nature (or the natural order of things, e.g. Macbeth) may precipitate mental instability. This may be of relevance in this modern world of invented physical and virtual environments. (MP)
EIGHTFOLD PATH: Ethical teachings of Buddha, describing the virtuous path from worldly suffering towards nirvana: 1. ethically correct viewpoint (e.g. selfless, desireless, compassionate), 2. right resolutions, 3. right speech, 4. right action, 5. right livelihood, 6. right effort, 7. proper mindfulness, and 8. regular practice of concentration/meditation.
EL NINO-SOUTHERN OSCILLATION PHENOMENON or ENSOP refers to the warm ocean current that blows along the northern tropical coast of South America in its changing phase causing unseasonable changing weather patterns in the Americas and Pacific Region, including Australia. El Nino refers to "the child" of change as opposed to La Nina "the Child" of constancy. Great interest has been expressed in the phenomenon and whether its current greater frequency is linked to global warming and human increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide. One model postulates such a relationship in which trapped heat in the CO2-rich atmosphere increases the temperature of the oceans, triggering cycles of drought and rain. The local effects of the El Nino current were known to the ancient people of Peru long before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadores
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION is the Sun’s ultimate source of energy used in driving almost all of the Earth-atmosphere system. It is within the atmosphere that the energy derived from the Sun is transformed into other forms of energy such as radiant, thermal, kinetic and potential. Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light, require no intervening medium for transmittance and are characterized by a wide spectrum of wavelengths ranging from the very short cosmic, gamma and X-rays, through ultraviolet, visible and infra-red radiation, to the longer wavelength microwaves and radio-waves. Increasingly sophisticated technologies are harnessing this absolute source of energy in original and creative ways. (IP)
ELSI: Ethical, Legal and Social Issues/implications that arise due to the current advancement in science and technology and in the history of science. A few areas where such ELSIs are faced include the human genome with regard to human diseases genes, genetic testing
EPIGENETIC: Different factors can alter the phenotype without modifying the genotype. Imprinting is considered a form of epigenetic modification of the expression of a given genomic region, since the same DNA rearrangement can lead to different phenotypes, depending of the parental origin of the aberrant chromosome. Methylation of suppressor genes in some forms of tumors can also explain modified phenotypes, where no alteration of the genotype is observed. Sibs sharing a same mutated genotype in autosomal dominant or recessive diseases with complete penetrance, but showing a different phenotype, can also result from epigenetic factors acting on the genotype. (See also EPISTATIC). (GK)
EPISOME: A DNA molecule that may exist either as an integrated part of a chromosomal DNA molecule of the host or as an independently replicating DNA molecule (plasmid) free of the host chromosome. (DM)
EPISTATIC: Several genes can act on a genotype in modifying its phenotypic expression. This phenomenon has been described for mendelian disorders with complete penetrance, like Cystic Fibrosis, where the same mutated genotypes can have varying degrees of severity of the clinical symptoms. It is presumed that proteins encoded by other genes can modify the original impairment of the CFTR-encoded ion channel. In the case of this disease, epistatic and epigenetic factors, although not yet characterized, are important issues in genetic counseling. (GK)
ERYTHROPOIETIN OR EPO: is a naturally occurring hormone produced by the kidneys which stimulates the bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes or red blood cells. Synthetic EPO has gained disrepute because of its illegal use by athletes. The theory behind its popularity is that since red blood cells carry oxygen around the body, hormone-driven increases in cell numbers will also lead to increased oxygen availability and better body performance; for instance, an elite cyclist can travel anywhere between 70-75 km/h but with increased oxygen carrying capacity the rider can potentially reach that speed more quickly and hold it for longer periods. Until recently EPO abuse has been difficult to detect because the synthetic form could not be distinguished from the naturally occurring form. However, technology developed by Australian scientists can now identify biological markers which allow drug-testing authorities to identify the synthetic hormone up to four weeks after the last dose. EPO drug testing was first approved for use in the Sydney Olympic Games in October, 2000. (IP)
ESPERANTO: An artificial language designed as a global lingua franca, Esperanto was first published in 1887 by the name 'Lingvo Internacia' by Ludwig Zamenhof under the pseudonym Doktoro Esperanto ('Doctor Hopeful'). Esperanto is based on the European lexicon with Slavonic influences, and has various dedicated international journals, conferences and associations despite limited official status.
ETHICS: A system of moral principles or standards governing conduct. 1. a system of principles by which human actions and proposals may be judged good or bad, right or wrong; 2. A set of rules or a standard governing the conduct of a particular class of human action or profession; 3. Any set of moral principles or values recognized by a particular religion, belief or philosophy; 4. The principles of right conduct of an individual. Ethical behavior requires the ability to reason, to understand the consequences and to make choices about one’s actions. As modern society changes and advances are made in technology, the prevailing ethical standards need to also evolve to incorporate changing social and cultural options (see Moral Philosophy) [Latin ethicus or Greek ethikos pertaining to "ethos" or character].
Traditional ethics was divided into Substantive ethics or meta ethics. Substantive ethics deals with "what are the rules?" and includes the utilitarian and Kantianism concepts, often both agree on practical applications. In Kantianism actions must subscribe other people as "ends in themselves" and not as means to the ends of others or for self-gratification. In utilitarianism actions are assessed on the basis of their anticipated consequences (good actions maximize happiness or minimize unhappiness). (DM, IP, JA)
EUPHEMISM: (Greek: euphemismos "good speech") Terminology or language which puts a favorable connotation on a sensitive word. Early euphemisms probably arose as discreet references to revered deities. The use of euphemism for political, medical and sexual concepts flowered in the decorous and dignified language of Renaissance and Victorian aristocracy. These courtly circumlocutions were described as "euphuism" by John Lyly in his 1578 satire Euphues. Euphemisms may be created by widening concepts, semantic shifts, metaphor or phonetic distortion. Euphemism provides the useful bioethical function of avoiding offense and reducing unpleasant psychological associations from fearful or grievous situations such as death. However, euphemisms are also employed in deceit and propaganda to obscure embarrassing concepts and practices in politics (e.g. people’s democracy), economics (e.g. downsizing, economic rationalism), strategy (e.g. intelligence gathering, deterrence) and warfare (e.g. collateral damage, conventional weapon, smart bomb, friendly fire, freedom fighter, peace enforcement, pre-emptive strike and preventive war).
EURYTYPIC SPECIES: A species which has a large tolerance to environmental change, typically with a wide geographical distribution
EVOLUTION: 1. Any series of gradual or punctuated changes through time. 2. In biology, the continuous genetic adaptation of species to environmental change by the agencies of natural selection, hybridization, inbreeding and mutation. The theory of evolution by natural selection was first popularized by British naturalist Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species (1859) and has since been supported by scientific research such as breeding experiments.
EXPERIMENT: (Latin experimentum 'see') a trial, special test or observation made to confirm or refute something in doubt or for testing a hypothesis. (IP)
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS: The treatment groups, or subjects which received measured exposure to a certain variable (e.g. medication), as opposed to the control groups (e.g. placebo) which are the same in all respects except for the treatment variable under examination. (See CONTROL GROUPS, DOUBLE BLIND EXPERIMENT) (MP)
EXPERT: (Latin: expertus "known by experience") Experts possess detailed current knowledge and an ability to process complex information. Their expertise may derive from proficiency in specialised skills, depth or range of knowledge, or decisive wisdom in judgement. Critics maintain that expertise from a single professional field poorly equips the specialist for problems in a broad, interconnected and complex world. Narrower specialised knowledge should be supplemented by higher order knowledge of the context, for example interrelated concepts, spatiotemporal relationships and processes of change. Experts have a privileged position of community trust as sources of knowledge, and this implies professional ethical responsibility in the gathering, distribution and use of this knowledge for decision making. (See EXPERT SYSTEM, EXPERTISE) (MP)
EXPERT SYSTEM: Expert systems and decision support systems are software which mimic the inductive or deductive reasoning of a human expert. Complex problems such as diagnosis, prediction, interpretation, planning and design are modelled and solved using inferences from facts and rules derived from expert knowledge. Expert systems may be defined by their task specialization and performance, problem solving ability in a given domain, ability to reformulate a problem, efficiency, complexity or symbol manipulation. Such software is the practical application of artificial intelligence research. Expert systems for management advisory and executive decision support have been deployed in industries such as medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, military planning, engineering and finance.
EXPERTISE: Expertise is usually defined by scope of detailed current knowledge and range of experience within a professional field or fields. It may also be expressed as proficient ability with a skilled task and familiarity with its performance. Other characteristics commonly regarded as comprising expertise include a combination of the following: high level attention, perception, concentration, cognitive processing and analytical intelligence, knowledge of context and complexity, understanding of fundamental patterns and processes, ability to understand abstract concepts, intellectual confidence in decision making, creative ability with ideas and concepts, selectivity regarding the relevance of information, adaptability to change, strong co-operation and communication skills, credibility of reputation, and a strong sense of professional ethical responsibility for choices made
FALLACY: 1. In philosophy, a fallacy is a logical breach or fault in an argument. A logical or formal fallacy is an invalid argument in which the premises do not deductively imply the conclusion. 2. More broadly, a belief which, although it may be widespread in the community, happens to be wrong.
FUNGI: One of the five taxonomic kingdoms (along with Animalia, Plantae, Protista and Monera), the Fungi are a diverse group of heterotrophic organisms with a rigid cell wall. Lacking chloroplasts, the fungus obtains its nutrients from mineral absorption through its hyphae and mycelium. Fungi perform an important ecological function as decomposers. Fungi include mushrooms, toadstools, bracket fungi, lichens, water molds and unicellular organisms and range from edible to poisonous.
GEEP: Animal (strictly a CHIMERA (q.v.)) formed by fusing together Goat and sheep cells. (MR)
GENBANK: An organization located in Alamas, USA which is repository of DNA sequence databases. (See BIOINFORMATICS) (JA)
GENDER: (Latin genus 'kind') the classification of the sex of a person roughly corresponding to masculine, feminine, ambivalent or neuter according to the demonstration of the continuum from maleness to femaleness. (See HOMOSEXUAL, SEX, TRANSSEXUAL). (IP)
GENE: The fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity. A gene is an ordered sequence of nucleotides located in a particular position on a particular chromosome. Length of the triple code in DNA - determines the sequence of amino acids in a protein. (See GENE EXPRESSION). (DM, JA)
GENE CONSTRUCT: A gene sequence prepared under laboratory conditions for transgenic transfer where the desired characteristics will be expressed. (JA)
GENE CHIP: An array of probes of nucleic acid on a chip for rapid assays of genetic variation, and mutated DNA sequences in an organism. Gene chips may allow for the diagnosis of all the genes of a genome in one test, and analysis is done by computer technology. (DM)
GENE DIAGNOSTIC TESTING: The presence of a faulty gene can be detected by techniques using the results on the gene structure e.g. association of BRCA1 with breast cancer. (JA).
GENE EXPRESSION: The process by which a gene's blueprint is converted into the structures present and operating in the cell. Expressed genes include those that are transcribed into mRNA and then translated into protein and those that are transcribed into RNA but not translated into protein (e.g., transfer and ribosomal RNAs). Appearance of a phenotypic characteristic specified by a gene like the shape of a fruit/color of a seed (DM, JA)
GENE FAMILIES: Groups of closely related genes that make similar products.
GENE GUN - a method for introducing foreign particles or genes into cells. The accelerating particles have a diameter sufficiently small to penetrate the surface membranes and be retained in a preselected cell without killing the cell. The idea is for the gene to be functionally incorporated into the interior of the cell without disrupting normal gene sequences (See GENE THERAPY). (IP)
GENE KNOCKOUT : An organism that has been genetically modified so that one gene is knocked out, or dysfunctional, for use in biomedical research of gene function. (DM)
GENE PATENTING: There has been controversy over the issuance of patents to nucleic acid sequences, and article 4 of the Universal Declaration on the Human genome and Human Rights, approved by all members of UNESCO in 1997 states "The genome in its natural state shall not be patented". In considering DNA as an assert or a property the following three arguments have been raised in a Nuffield Bioethics Council Report. 1. “Patents that assert rights over DNA sequences, in particular human DNA sequences, should not be allowed by virtue of the special status or nature of DNA. 2. Patents that assert rights over DNA sequences should not be allowd because they do not meet the legal criteria for patenting. 3. patents that assert rights over DNA sequences should not be allowed by virtue of the possible deleterious consequences for healthcare and research related to healthcare.” (JA, DM)
GENE POOL: The sum total of all the different GENES (q.v.) and forms of genes (ALLELES (q.v.)) found in a POPULATION (q.v.) or other collection of organisms within a SPECIES (q.v.). So the gene pool contains all the genetic variation found among the organisms in question. (MR)
GENE PRODUCT: The biochemical material, either RNA or protein, made by a gene. The amount of gene product is used to measure how active a gene is; abnormal amounts can be correlated with disease-causing genes. (DM)
GENE THERAPY: Used without qualification means the genetic modification of body cells of an individual patient, directed to alleviating disease in that patient. See somatic gene therapy and germ line gene therapy. (See IN UTERO GENE THERAPY, SOMATIC-CELL GENE THERAPY) (JA)
GENE TRANSFER refers to the spread of genetic material through natural genetic mechanisms. Little is known about the frequency of genetic exchange in Nature. Recent concerns are about outcrossing to wild varieties of genetically engineered plants and risk of transfer of foreign DNA across to insects, birds and mammals which normally consume some parts of the genetically modified organism and its long-term impact on those species (see GMOs) (IP)
GENETIC: Connected with the genetic system of heredity, e.g. Genes. (JA)
GENETIC ABNORMALITY: Due to mutation, a gene/or a protein is altered in such a way that the gene expression is altered and the protein is unable to function normally. There are about 5,700 known genetic abnormality and genetic testing can reveal the disorder in about 300 cases. (JA)
GENETIC ALGORITHMS: Genetic or evolutionary algorithms, pioneered by John Holland, are sets of computer instructions which emulate aspects of evolution and genetic biology such as self-organization, replication, heredity and adaptation to their environment. Genetic algorithms form the basis of programming which emulates life as part of the ‘bottom up’ approach to artificial life, along with cellular automata and artificial neural networks. (MP)
GENETIC CODE: The sequence of nucleotides, or base pairs in DNA, coded in triplets along the mRNA, which determines the sequence of amino acids in protein synthesis (e.g. UGC = cystine). The DNA sequence of a gene can be used to predict the mRNA sequence, and the genetic code can in turn be used to predict the amino acid sequence. Universal, common in all living organisms. (DM, JA)
GENETIC ENGINEERING: Altering the genetic composition of a living organism by technological means based on recombinant DNA technology. This can be altering the gene sequence, addition, substitution, deletion, avoids natural mating and occurrence of natural genetic recombination during meiosis. Has contributed to the understanding of genetic diversity useful in the conservation for plants, animals and microorganisms. An umbrella term, powerful tool for manipulating genetic material of any organism for making GMOs, gene therapy. Useful in biotechnological industry. Also known as targeted genetics, recombinant DNA, manipulation
GENOMICS: Characterizes the technologies supporting the science of genetics; that is, the DNA informational content of a cell. Since the late 1990s, the field has changed the way we view the biological world since all living organisms, whether bacteria or human, can now have their genomes completely sequenced and archived for ready access. Was a term originally coined to describe the discipline of science concerned with the mapping, sequencing and analysis of genomes - the complete set of genes from an organism and described the "parts manual" for an organism. The commercialization of genome technology, however, is usually focused on the discovery of medically relevant genes as potential therapeutic drug targets or identification of specific gene sequences that are correlated with genetic disorders. Modern advances in genetics have changed the way we view the biological world since all living organisms, ranging from bacteria to humans, can now have their genome sequenced, creating crucial issues of access and ownership of genomes
GRAY GOO CATASTROPHE: This term is used in nanotechnology discourse to refer to the possibility of an apocalyptic end to life on Earth as a result of accidental release of the wrong replicating assemblers. Nanotechnology "bacteria" could be designed to utilize elements such as carbon from their surroundings to replicate more of themselves in an uncontrollable chain reaction. This evolutionarily superior "gray goo" may spread rapidly across the globe to obliterate all species including its creator.
GROWTH HORMONE (GH): A hormone which contributes to the growth of a child. Its availability may also be related to the aging process. GH from cadavers was once used to replace GH deficiency in short-stature children. But a suspected link between cadaver-derived GH and Creutzfeld-Jacob disease encouraged the development of genetically engineered GH derived from genetically modified E-Coli. The use of GH for healthy, non-GM deficient, but short stature children raises bioethical questions of pediatric informed consent, of whether "short-stature" is a medical or a culture-relative term, and of whether medical solutions ought to be applied to problems for which alternative solutions, such as sport, martial arts, change of attitude and lifestyle, might be tried. These questions are all the more salient since there is no conclusive evidence that GM treatment for healthy, short-stature children affects final height rather than just growth rate. (FL)
HACKER: A hacker uses extraordinary knowledge of the internet to break security limitations and explore, sometimes even change, the information stored on computer systems. A ‘cracker’ is a criminal hacker, who may commit credit fraud, steal identities and release viruses or worms. To ‘phreak’ is to illegally access telephone systems and other lines of communication. To ‘crack’ software is to bypass security codes which prevent piracy by non-paying users. The ‘hacktivist’ works for a social or ideological cause.
HUMAN BODY CELL TYPES: A collection of similar types of cells forms an organ and a collection of different organ systems constitute a body. In human body there are about 260 different cell types like the nerve cell, skin cell, kidney cell and heart cell. All different cell types work together to make the human body a functional whole – which is a best example of “systems approach”. (JA).
HUMAN EXTINCTION: It is amazing how little emphasis is placed on discussion and planning for the future survival of our own species. It seems as if, like an adolescent, we have not yet come to terms with our own mortality. In the long term, it is almost inevitable that our species will go extinct or be otherwise transformed by evolution or technology. Human populations have undergone massive expansion in a very short period of time from only 2 billion people in 1930 to currently well over 6 billion people, and the associated increase in human activity and consumption has precipitated the sixth Mass Extinction of global biodiversity. In ecology, unregulated increases in population size beyond the capacity of the environment to sustain them result in catastrophic decline. Habitat destruction and other ecological disturbances such as global warming have undermined the living systems upon which the health of the globe and our existence depend. Rapid changes to the composition of the atmosphere have caused global disruption before in the history of the Earth. Major epidemics are increasingly likely, due to the evolution of antibiotic-resistant or other new strains of disease and the ease by which microbes can travel across our international transport network. With the accelerating pace of change, future developments in technology and warfare may pose an even more immediate danger to the human species. Three technologies in particular have the potential power to devastate the Earth Genetics, Nanotechnology and Robotics. Each of these new technologies have a dangerous combination of characteristics, in particular the ability to self-replicate in a chain reaction with no upper limit, which place them in a league of destructiveness which may be on a scale larger than that of the Earth itself. Genetically engineered or nanotechnology weapons have the potential to be selectively destructive to certain regions or genetically distinct populations. Dangerously, the advent of the internet and the declining power of government regulation have placed these technologies within the reach of individuals and small groups rather than just nation states. The development of new technology often seems to move faster than our philosophical understanding of its consequences. Human survival may now depend upon globalising the culture of ethics to control the development and spread of dangerous information and technology. (MP)
HYBRIDS : The offspring of parents belonging to different species, varieties, or genotypes.
HYBRIDIZATION: The process of joining two complementary strands of DNA, or of DNA and RNA, together to form a double-stranded molecule. (DM)
HYBRIDOMA: A new cell resulting from the fusion of a particular type of immortal type of immortal tumor cell line, a myeloma, with an antibody-producing B lymphocyte. Cultures of such cells are capable of continuous growth and specific (i.e. monoclonal) antibody production. (DM)
HYPOCRISY : Hypocrisy is the promotion of moral values which are contrary to the real character, standards and behaviors of the hypocrite. For a long time a cause of public disillusionment, hypocrisy has commonly been alleged against commercial, political and religious institutions. Hypocrisy on the part of the advocator or deliverer of moral advice cannot be used as a valid argument against the advice itself. Nevertheless, the person who practices what they preach is more likely to be heard than is the hypocrite. (MP)
HYPOCRITE : The hypocrite promotes and pretends certain values and behaviors but is unwilling or unable to live up to these standards. (MP)
HYPOTHESIS: Supposition open to refutation. Knowledge, especially in SCIENCE (q.v.) largely accumulates by the testing of hypotheses which leads to some being rejected and others accepted. (MR)
HYPOXIA : (Greek hypo 'deficient' + oxys 'sharp' + genein 'to produce'). Inadequate oxygen supply at the cellular level. If the supply of oxygen is inadequate for aerobic cellular metabolism energy is provided by less efficient anaerobic pathways that produce toxic metabolites. The tissues most sensitive to hypoxia are the brain, heart, pulmonary vessels, and liver. Despite the evolution of adaptive mechanisms for the effective transport of oxygen, the fetus is still at risk when the oxygen level in the uterine environment falls. It has been suggested that oxygen deprivation may be responsible for more than 30% of the deaths of all stillborn infants and a major cause of intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR).
ICE-MINUS (ICE-): A bacterium lacking a functional gene coding for a protein that promotes the formation of ice crystals by providing a physical nucleus around which ice crystallizes. The gene has been deleted from strains of Pseudomonas syringae Pseudomonas fluorescens , and Erwinia herbicola . (DM)
ICE-PLUS (ICE+): A bacterium with an intact, functional ice-nucleating gene. (DM)
IDEAS PRODUCTION: New ideas are often the combination of existing ideas or concepts, residing for example in the regions between established definitions or disciplines. New properties and possibilities emerge when actions, tools or memes are analyzed, merged or extended. Methods for the production of ideas include concept comparisons/combinations, conjunction of words, metaphor/metonymy, brainstorming sessions, stream of consciousness, lateral thinking, meta-analysis, recognition of patterns, deductive reasoning and creative inspiration.
IDENTITY : On the individual level: The feeling of being one self. Although identity is multi-dimensional and often heterogenous, it is characterized as a feeling of being “one”, a idthink we are, it also emerges from drawing a boundary from what we are NOT, or what we do not WANT to be. On the collective level (“collective identity”), identity is a seat are the raison d´etre of the group. (BP)
IDENTITY CRISIS : An identity crisis arises when our feeling of being one inseparable entity is challenged or even being overthrown. This can manifest in not knowing who we are, where we belong to, or what we are not. In regard to collective identity, a crisis can emerge if the common grounds that hold a group of people (a family, a congregation, a nation) together are unclear, challenged, changing at a rapid pace. (BP)
IGNORANCE: Ignorance implies total lack of knowledge or understanding of the system or process under consideration, or even the very existence of the relevant element. We can’t study or understand what we don’t know about.
IMMUNE SYSTEM : An extensive system that protects the body against pathogenic organisms and other foreign bodies. Lymphocytes which develop from stem cells in the bone marrow are associated with the protection of the body against foreign materials or antigens. There are two types of lymphocytes - the T-lymphocytes activated by the thymus gland and the b -lymphocytes activated in the main in lymphoid tissues. When an activated T-lymphocyte encounters antigens they develop specific protective(in conjunction with phagocytes) of the specific antigen, and memory cells that multiply and remain in the lymphoid tissue passing on their latter is called cell-mediated immunity. b -lymphocytes are activated by microbes ase while the memory cells confer humoral r cells and antibodies. In summary, theres T cells to mobilize tissue macrophages in the presence of a foreign body.
IMMUNITY : (Latin immunis 'free'). The state of being protected against contagious agents. Immunity may be acquired naturally or artificially and both forms may be active or passive. Active immunity means that the individual has responded to an antigen and produced suitable antibodies. In passive immunity the individual has been given antibodies produced by someone else.
Active artificially acquired immunity develops in response to the administration of dead or artificially attenuated (weakened) microbes (vaccine) or detoxicated toxins (toxoids) which retain the antigenic properties to stimulate the development of immunity but they cannot cause the disease. Many bacterial infections are preventable by immunization like cholera, diphtheria, measles, mumps, poliomyelitis, smallpox, tetanus, tuberculosis, whooping cough. Active immunization against some infections confers life-long immunity; for example, diphtheria, whooping cough, mumps while in other infections the immunity may last for a number of year or for only a few weeks before revaccination is necessary. Age and nutrition are important in establishing and maintaining good immunity. In the elderly and when nutrition is poor the production of lymphocytes, especially b -lymphocytes, is reduced resulting in an inadequate immune response.
Passive naturally acquired immunity is acquired before birth by the passage of maternal antibodies across the placenta to the fetus. The variety of different antibodies provided depends on the mother's active immunity. Passive immunity is reinforced after birth by antibody-rich collostrum in beast milk. Passive immunity is short-lived but acts as a good protection during the neonatal period when the infant is most vulnerable.
Passive artificially acquired immunity is acquired when ready-made antibodies in human or animal serum are injected into the recipient. The source of the antibodies may be from an individual who has recovered from the infection, or animals, commonly horses, that have been artificially actively immunized. Antiserum is administered prophylactically to prevent the development of disease in people who have been exposed to the specific infection, or therapeutically after the disease has developed.
IN UTERO GENE THERAPY : In the 1990s scientists developed a technique in mice in which foreign DNA was transported intravenously to the developing embryo in utero . It was found that the maternal blood flow effectively transported the DNA through the placenta, opening up the way for somatic in utero gene therapy. These advances are significant because they foreshadow the use of in utero gene transfer in humans where specific target organs; such as the lung in the case of cystic fibrosis, could be targeted for therapy with the advantage of arresting the genetic defect before it can severely damage target tissues and organs in affected children. The major hazard of somatic gene therapy, as with all experimental treatments, is that things could go wrong. The development of human fetal gene therapy, however, carries many more complex moral and ethical questions not least the issues of deliberate, or accidental, targeting of the germ-line cells with physiological/psychological consequences on future generations of children. Technical advances in germ-line genetic modification in unscrupulous hands raises the disconcerting issue of eugenics and designer babies.
IN VITRO : Literally "in glass"; pertaining to a biological process or reaction taking place in an artificial environment, usually a laboratory. Referring to a process or reaction carried out in a test tube or culture disk Like carrying out fertilization in a test tube. (DM, JA)
IN VITRO EXPERIMENTS : Experiments carried out on tissue/cells/eggs/sperms samples separated from living animals. (Lit = in glass). (JA)
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: In statistics, the variable or attribute acting as a reference and which is thought to affect or influence the dependent variable. (See VARIABLE, INDEPENDENT VARIABLE ) (MP)
INDETERMINACY: Indeterminacy is where the scientific or social context is not sufficiently understood to allow an answer to a problem to be determined. Knowledge may be conditional on the validity of uncertain assumptions or axioms, or the system may be too complex and have insufficient models and monitoring.
INFORMATICS: The study of the application of computer and statistical techniques to the management of information. In genome projects, informatics includes the development of methods to search databases quickly, to analyze DNA sequence information, and to predict protein sequence and structure from DNA sequence data.
INFOSPHERE: (Information + Sphere) The infosphere is the collected data and information in cyberspace and different forms of media from which resources for research, decision-making and human knowledge can be drawn. It is ultimately information which illustrates and determines how energy acts upon matter in the course of the Earth’s progress.
INSTINCT: An innate (inborn) usually stereotyped behavioural response to one or more environmental stimuli. So, for example, even blind babies smile when pleased. In fact, though, practically all human behaviour, even if it has an instinctive component, is at least partly under its owner's control.
INTELLIGENCE: Intelligence refers to the ability of the mind to handle and process information. Human intelligence is made up of a number of capacities, including logical deduction, reasoning, inference, analogy, abstract thought, perception, comprehension, memory, creativity, learning from experience, application of knowledge, problem solving, recognition of importance and adaptability of response. In addition, there are multiple recognized types of intelligence, including verbal, logical, mathematical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal and emotional intelligences. This diversity illustrates the difficulties inherent in the measurement of intelligence. The intellectual environment of the young determines whether they are able to reach their genetic potential for brainpower. Of course humans are not the only intelligent agents on the planet, with various animal and artificial intelligences having different comparative strengths and functions
INTELLIGENT AGENT: An autonomous software program or expert system which independently carries out its own specialized task or service. An intelligent agent may for example collect information of certain criteria from the internet, or learn to filter news or advertising according to user habits and preferences.
ITERATIVE PROCESS: A method by which progress is in a stepwise fashion with new depth and detail of information added and incorporated at each stage.
KARYOTYPE: A photomicrograph of an individual's chromosomes arranged in a standard format showing the number, size and shape of each chromosome; used in low-resolution physical mapping to correlate gross chromosomal abnormalities with the characteristics of specific diseases. 1. Indicates chromosome composition of an organism 2. Phytomicrograph showing chromosome composition. (DM, JA)
KARYOTYPE ANALYSIS : Chromosome analysis performed on dividing cells (usually cultured lymphocytes) of an individual. Chromosomes can be stained with different chemicals, thus resulting in different banding patterns. The chromosomes are classified according to the size and bands in pairs of autosomes (22 pairs) and sexual chromosomes (1 pair), thus enabling to detect abnormalities associated to a clinical phenotype. The most common are trisomies (trisomy 21 is known as DOWN SYNDROME), the XO sex chromosome monosomy or Turner syndrome, and partial translocations or inversions. (GK)
KURTOSIS: A measure of the degree of peak in a frequency distribution. A sharp peak is leptokurtic, moderate is mesokurtic and a platykurtic distribution is relatively flat.
LATERAL THINKING: Producing ideas by thinking ‘outside the box’, or along an alternate tangent of thought to the traditional ‘high probability’ train of ‘vertical’ literal thinking. A term developed by Edward de Bono, lateral thinking can be induced by looking at a problem from many points of view, reversing components of an idea, ‘working backwards’ from an option/srational reasoning. (See PO, BRAINSTORMING, REASONING) (MP)
LEOPOLD MATRIX: A large matrix of environmental elements/characteristics in horizontal rows and potential environmental impacts in the vertical columns. For each policy option, the potential impacts are estimated for each element by indicating a ‘magnitude’ and ‘significance’ score in eaeopold and others in 1971 and is still commonly used in Environmental Impact Assessment.
LEUKOTOMY: literally "cutting the white matter", a neurosurgical procedure in which the nerve fibers in the bundle of white matter in the frontal lobe of the brain’s cortex are cut in order to interrupt transmission, thereby isolating the prefrontal cortex from the rest of the cerebral cortex; that is, the frontal lobes cease to play any part in the patient’s life. White matter is the term used for the fiber connections between groups of brain cells and in this case the nerve connections between the frontal lobes and the rest of the brain are severeth a wire loop passed through the bony orbit of the eye. The procedure is adopted for the treatment of an extended variety of mental disorders; particularly violence, personality disorders, intrace depression and pain. The operation was developed by a Portuguese neurosurgeon, Egaz Moniz (1875-1955), who heard of an experimental procedure whereby legions of the front part of the brain supprd "neurotic" behavior in monkeys. At a time when brain function was little understood and drugs for severe psychiatric conditions were not available, leukotomy was considered - right up until the s - to be a more humane treatment to calm down severely agitated and aggressive patients. Other routinely used alternative treatments for mentally ill patients included straitjackets, isolation inked padded cells, or insulin injections to induce comas. The procedure is seldom performed these days because, while in many cases it does make the patients calm, it also has many undesirable effect such as personality change including aggression, other socially unacceptable behavior, incontinence, apathy and complete lack of motivation
LINGUISTICS: Linguistics, originally known as philology, is the scientific study of languages, including vocabulary, grammar, style, phonetics, semiotics, lexicography, linguistic evolution, artificial languages, translation, the philosophy of language and the relation of these to human thought and behavior. Linguistic relativity/determinism is the idea that the characteristics of a language dictate cultural and world outlook. Biological linguistics investigates language in relation to human evolution, child development and neurological processing. Psycholinguistics studies language in relation to memory, attention, comprehension and mental health. Sociolinguistics investigates language as a reflection of social function and cultural diversity. A linguist is a person who studies the structure of language and/or is able to speak and translate multiple languages.
LOCUS: The position on a chromosome of a gene or other chromosome marker, and also the DNA at that position. Some restrict use of locus to regions of DNA that are expressed.
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX: This huge complex of immune-response genes is located on chromosome 6p21.3. It covers a region of more than 3.800kb. Besides the classical class I, II and III genes, it also encodes DN/DO and 21 hydroxylase molecules. (see also HLA locus class I, class II and class III genes; Pheromone) (GK)
MARKER: An identifiable physical location on a chromosome (e.g., restriction enzyme cutting site, gene, RFLP marker) whose inheritance can be monitored. Markers can be expressed regions of DNA (genes) or some segment of DNA with no known coding function but whose pattern of inheritance can be determined. (DM)
MARKER GENE: A gene for expressing a protein which makes the cells or organisms with the gene, e.g., to provide tolerance to antibiotics. A selected gene with a characteristic feature for gene transfer.
MASS EXTINCTION: Mass extinction events are relatively brief periods during which a large proportion of the Earth’s existing species are extirpated. They are characterised by numerous extinctions occuring simucal nature of the planet. The big five mass extinctions in Earth’s history occured at the final stages of the following Periods: experiencing the sixth mass extinction. Regrettably, the current mass extinction event has been driven by human development and expansion, and Homo sapiens will not necessarily be excluded from it’s catastrophic effects. (See EXTINCTION, HUMAN EXTINCTION) (MP).
MASS MEDIA: Instruments of communication that reach large numbers of people; for example, the press, radio, television. (DM)
MASS SCREENING: The use of quick and simple diagnostic procedures with large groups of apparently well people for the purpose of detecting the presence or risk of diseases or disorders.
MEDICAL INFORMATION DIRECTORIES: The desire of the health profession to benefit humanity saw it pioneer free and open distribution of medical journals on the internet. Medline (www.medlineplus.gov) is a free archive of some 3500 medical journals selected by the U.S. National Library of Medicine. Numerous other periodicals, directories, medical forums and diagnostic tools exist such as Medscape, Medical Matrix, HealthAnswers, OnHealth and Virtual Hospital.
MEME: The word meme was first proposed by Richard Dawkins in the context of evolutionary processes and cultural replication, in The Selfish Gene (1976): “We need a name for the new replicator, a noun that conveys the idea of a unit of cultural transmission, or a unit of imitation . ‘Mimeme’ comes from a suitable Greek root, but I want a monosyllable that sounds a bit like ‘gene’. I hope my classicist friends will forgive me if I abbreviate mimeme to meme . If it is any consolation, it could alternately be thought of as being related to ‘memory’, or the French word même .” les, although not necessarily direct perception or things that cannot replicate or be imitated. Perhaps the best example of how memes compete and reproduce by natural selection is the ‘meme’ meme itself. The concept of the meme has successfully made it into dictionaries and general discourse, presumably helped by being analogous to the word gene . In contrast, another term for almost the same concept, the ‘culturgen’, proposeTOR)
MEME COMPLEX: The ‘coadapted meme complex’, abbreviated to ‘memeplex’, is a group of memes which are symbiotic in that they are selected for, replicate and evolve together. Dawkins uses the ‘God’ meme complex as an example, suggesting we “regard an organized church, with its architecture, rituals, laws, music, art, and written tradition, as a co-adapted stable set of mutually-assisting memes.”
MEMORY: (Latin: memoria ) 1. The capacity of the mind for learning, retention and recall of thoughts, observations and information. Memory is involved in the selection of events relevant to survival from a constant barrage of environmental inputs. Stimulus during certain critical stages of child development is crucial to memory and learning. There are different types of memory associated with different parts of the brain and having specific characteristics (e.g. visual association, language, short term & long term memories). Memory is associated with changes in the processing and neural channels of the brain rather than the molecules. Neurological details remain unknown, but memories are expressed as changes in the synapses and/or as broader interrelated patterns of excitation. (See COLLECTIVE MEMORY, MEME, MEMORY ENHANCEMENT, MEMORY IMPAIRMENT, MIND). 2. The storage capacity of a computer system, measured in bytes, or units of information, available for central processing, with hard drive storage commonly in the gigabyte range and random access memory in the megabyte range. (See ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)
MEMORY ENHANCEMENT: Capacity for memory is not necessarily predetermined and can be considerably enhanced with training and mental organization. The effort of memorizing must be made at the initial time of the observation rather than later at the time of recall. The metaphor of a filing cabinet is useful as it illustrates the importance of proper organization of memories in logically related groups. For long-term memory revision is important to reinforce the associated neural connections. Because memories predominantly rely on visual representations, many memory enhancement techniques use pictures and spatial relationships. Mind-maps are a useful tool for representing relationships between memory groups. Mnemonics associate initial letters or other markers with easy-to-remember phrases and are useful for memorizing lists or equations. Daisy-chaining also uses mental visual associations (most memorable if seemingly ridiculous) to link together related information such as the segments of a seminar. There are numerous other techniques involving visual associations and mental codes for remembering facts, lists, faces, names and numbers.
MESSENGER RNA, mRNA: A class of RNA produced by transcribing the DNA sequence of a gene. The mRNA molecule carries messages specific to each of the 20 amino acids. Its role in protein synthesis is to transmit instructions from DNA sequences (in the nucleus of the cell) to the ribosomes (in the cytoplasm of the cell).
MINERALS: (Latin minera 'mine'). Inorganic substances with characteristic chemical compositions and structures - typically crystalline - occurring naturally in the earth's crust. Minerals are constituents of all body tissues and fluids, and they are essential in the maintenance of physiological processes acting as catalysts in nerve transmission, muscle contraction and metabolism of nutrients in foods. Our supply of minerals comes almost exclusively through the food chain. Plants take them from the ground and incorporate them into organic compounds that we consume by eating either plants or animals that ate the plants. The main exception is table salt (sodium chloride or NaCl) which provides sodium and chloride in inorganic form. The minerals calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, sulphure, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, selenium and zinc are all essential in animal and, therefore, human nutrition.
MITOCHONDRIAL DNA: Circular DNA molecule embedded in the matrix of the mitochondrion. Its size in mammals is around 16kb, whereas in S. cerevisiae it is 84kb. The mtDNA molecule in humans is 16.569 base pairs long. One of the differences between both molecules is that the human mitochondrial genes do not posses introns, whereas two genes in the yeast have large introns (Cytb and CO1). There is also a considerable amount of yeast mtDNA that seems to be non-coding (25% stretches rich in AT). In humans, the two strands (H and L) differ in nucleotide content, the H (heavy) strand comprising mainly G and T residues (> 61%), whereas the L (light) strand contains mainly A and C bases. Mitoch; therefore, mtDNA does not show recombination. Since there are multiple same cell; these can be transmitted in a random way to the daughter cells. This phenomenon is called heteroplasmy. Mice show some degree of paternal transmission of mtDNA.
MOLECULAR COMPUTER: A potential future technology proposed by the science of molecular electronics. The molecular computer would be an extremely small, powerful, dense, heat-efficient computational device made up of various components of differing electrical properties being developed by the field. The molecular computer would largely be made up of carbon-based molecules - organic chemistry such as that of life. Molecular arrangements of DNA information storage mechanisms have been a source of inspiration, implying that the physics can be made to work if we could more efficiently manipulate the components. Separate concurrent lines of research are also developing and refining quantum computers and DNA computers.
MOLECULAR ELECTRONICS: The science of arranging molecules to act as electronic circuits. Various arrangements of organic molecules have been manipulated to act like logic gates, switches, diodes, resistors, wires, and potentially also transistors. The supporting infrastructure of possible future molecular computers may include spherical (e.g. buckminsterfullerene), wire-like (e.g. special carbon-chains) and tubular (e.g. carbon nanotubes) organic molecules which have been developed and investigated for their electrical properties. Hexagonal carbon nanotubes conduct electricity when arranged in a straight line, and are an effective semi-conductor when arranged as a helix. The electrical properties of carbon in this form have aroused interest in computer researchers who foresee bottlenecks in the miniaturization of silicon devices. Molecular electronics probably holds many of the keys to artificial life, artificial intelligence and nanotechnology, and as such also opens up a new paradigm of technological possibility and ethical concern.
NITROGEN FIXATION: The process of conversion or fixation of inorganic nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into substances such as ammonia, which makes nitrogen available to living organisms. Nitrogen fixation is essential in the synthesis of amino acids, proteins and other nitrogen-containing compounds. The organisms responsible for nitrogen fixation are either symbiotic bacteria living in association with a plant, such as those living in the root nodules of leguminous plants or inside lichens, or free-living forms such as blue-green algae.
NUCLEIC ACID: A macromolecule composed of sequences of nucleotide bases, DNA or RNA.
NUCLEOTIDE: A subunit of DNA or RNA consisting of a nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, thymine or cytosine in DNA; adenine, guanine, uracil or cytosine, in RNA), a phosphate molecule, and a sugar molecule (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA). Thousands of nucleotides are linked to form the DNA or RNA molecule. See DNA, base pair, RNA The human genome has 3.3 billion base pairs. (DM, IP)
NULL HYPOTHESIS: The mutually exclusive or inversely opposite set to the hypothesis. Often the null hypothesis asserts no differences between treatment populations. Disproving the null hypothesis adds weight to the hypothesis.
OCKHAM’S RAZOR: A loose principle of science closely related to ‘parsimony’, stating that assumptions should be minimized and simplified. Named for the philosophical ideas of William Ockham (1285-1347), Ockham’s Razor cuts away unnecessarily complicated theories and identifies those with simplicity of theory construction.
OLFACTION : (Latin olfacere 'to smell'). The sense of smell. The nose has a dual function - respiration and the sense of smell. The sensory nerves of smell have their origins in special cells in the mucous membrane of the roof of the nose. On each side of the nasal septum nerve fibers from these cells pass to the olfactory bulb - the area in the forebrain where the olfactory nerves terminate and the olfactory tracts arise. Nerve fibers form the olfactory tract (first cranial nerve) pass backwards to the olfactory area in the temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex where the impulses are interpreted and odor perceived. All odorous materials give off chemical particles that are carried into the nose with the inhaled air and stimulate the nerve cells of the olfactory region. 'Sniffing' concentrates more particles more quickly in the roof of the nose thus increasing the number of special cells stimulated and the perception of smell. The sense of smell in humans is generally less acute than in other mammals. (IP)
OLIGONUCLEOTIDE : Synthetic short DNA fragment used in molecular biology techniques, either for amplifying DNA (in PCR reactions) or for visualizing a complementary sequence in native DNA, cDNA or RNA (in dot or slot blot hybridizations).
ONCOGENE: A gene, one or more forms of which is associated with cancer. Many oncogenes are involved, directly or indirectly, in controlling the rate of cell growth. (DM)
ONCOLOGY : A study involving the formation of tumors and cancer cell formation. (JA)
ONCOMOUSE : Strain of mice genetically engineered to be more susceptible to cancers. The original oncomouse was developed at Harvard Medical School and patented in 1988. It soon became something of a cause célèbre as campaigners, particularly in Europe, argued that it was morally repugnant to design an animal to be likely to develop cancer. Those in favour of the existence of oncomice tend to argue on utilitarian grounds that the strains when used in research might well be beneficial to humans. (MR)
ONTOGENY: (Greek: ont- "being" + geny "birth") The sequence and course of development during the life of an individual organism
ORGANELLE: A structure in the cytoplasm of a cell that is specialized in its ultrastructure and biochemical composition to serve a particular function (e.g. mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast). (DM)
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: A major branch of chemistry which investigates carbon compounds. Carbon has the ability to bond covalently with itself, as well as with other molecules like hydrogen, oxygen or nitrogen, to form varied and extensive branched chains or rings. Carbon compounds are fundamental to all currently existing earthly life, but not restricted to living matter as believed in the nineteenth century when the term "organic chemistry" was coined. Conversely, it is theoretically possible that not all life must be based on organic chemistry. "Carbon chemistry" is perhaps a more technically accurate alternative.
ORGANOIDS: Artificial matrices are being made to perform the functions of organs, such as for release of hormones in the body. Usually living cells will be enclosed within the matrix.
SMOSIS: The passage of water through a semi-permeable barrier such as a cell membrane. Water tends to flow from a hypotonic fluid (with low osmotic concentration) to hypertonic fluid (higher relative osmotic concentration) until an isotonic medium (equilibrium) is reached.
OXYMORON: Oxymoron is a strange word used to describe a self-contradictory phrase where the words making up the two halves are seemingly opposite, but still manage to make sense in combination. Typical examples include ‘sustainable development’, ‘military intelligence’, ‘smart bomb’.
PARADIGM: A paradigm is an archetypal pattern or theoretical framework which supports scientific and metaphysical beliefs. Thomas Kuhn in his Structure of Scientific Revolutions (1962) sees the progress of science not as gradual like the empiricists, but as a series of punctuated changes, or ‘paradigm shifts’, which alter the very model and language of the previous belief system. The ‘dominant paradigm’, or established viewpoint, is overthrown by an alternative epistemological framework or world-view. One of Kuhn’s examples was the paradigm shift from the Ptolemaic earth-centered picture of the solar system to the Copernican (MP)
PARADIGM CASE: The ‘paradigm case’ is a dominant representative example of something, and the ‘paradigm case argument’ is a philosophical refutation of skepticism. (MP)
PARADIGM SHIFT: Punctuated revolution of scientific knowledge and/or community belief with new ideas or discoveries. Changes in fundamental worldview or viewpoint do not come easily, and individuals ahead of their time (on the other side of a paradigm shift) may initially suffer institutional ridicule (examples include James Lovelock, Noam Chomsky and Eric Drexler). The dominant paradigm has the collective weight of inertia, tradition and professional careers invested in its maintenance. Institutional resistance will persist until the models and language of the previous belief system are updated to the alternative paradigm.
PARADOX : A seemingly contradictory situation, problem or statement.
PARTICLE GUN : A tool in getting through fragments of DNA through the cell membrane into the a cell. Ultra thin tungsten metal particles (fractions of a micrometer) are mixed with DNA and fired at a very high speed into a cell using a 0.22 cartridge.
PATENT: A legal monopoly right tenable for a limited period of time, given to an inventor, an invention filed with a patent office detailing ones invention. A patent is a grant issued by different government through a Patent and Trademark Office that gives the patent owner the right to exclude all others from making, using, or selling a patented invention within the country for the term of the patent (e.g. in the USA this is for 17 years). Fulfillment of one of the criteria, namely details about the patent must be fully disclosed, can enable others and provides incentives to improve the process or develop alternative methods. The patenting system enables commercial enterprisers to invest in the production and application of knowledge by allowing the benefits to be accrued to the company.
There are about three essential categories: 1. A product patent which deals with the product (a chemical or a biological entity, a substance or composition) per se . It also covers its practical uses. It would cover an active ingredient. 2. A process patent – a patent on the methodology or the process by which a product is produced. It would cover the actual making of the ingredient or its formulation. 3. A use patent – it covers the specific practical use of a product for a specific purpose. It would cover a specific pharmaceutical product for a specific medical aliment.
An application usually has three sections:1. An abstract - gives the summary of the application. 2. Description – a detailed description of the invention as to ensure the reproducibility of the same by another skilled person. 3. Claims – a detailed statement over which rights are asserted. All claims must be self explanatory in the sense it must be clear and complete. (See PATENT CRITERIA). (DM+JA)
PATENT CRITERIA : In order to issue a patent, following criteria are considered. The claim for the invention must be eligible for patenting, 1. It must be novel, 2 it must be inventive or non obvious 3. It must be useful or have an industrial application, 4.it must be fully disclosed in the patent application. A mere discovery does not merit patenting . (JA).
PATENTING LIFE: Many patent offices have expanded patent rights to encompass not just microorganisms but gene sequences, expressed sequence tags (ESTs), proteins, cell lines, genetically modified plants and animals and even non genetically modified species. As on Nov 2002 6,000 patents on full length genes from human, animal, plants, bacteria and viral sources have been awarded, besides 20,000 gene patents. It is estimated that life patents cover 5,00,000 different molecular structures. There has been considerable controversy about patenting of life and genetic material.
PECKSNIFFIAN a. Archaic: a hypocritical parade of benevolence or high principle (after a character in one of Charles Dickens" novels, 1812-70)
PEER REVIEW : The evaluation by professionals of the quality of work performed by fellow professionals.
PERSONAL PILLS : Knowledge about the details of Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNIPs) can indicate genetic variations, which may dictate how drugs are prescribed for a particular person. (JA)
PERSONHOOD : Descriptively, the status of being self-aware, capable of rational thought and of moral agency; normatively, the status of being accorded moral and/or legal rights.
PHARMACOGENOMICS A term that describes the use of advanced genetic tools to elucidate how variations in patients" DNA may diminish or amplify drug effects or render a pharmaceutical toxic.
PHLOEM: Plant conductive tissue involved in the transport of organic materials.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS literally "synthesis out of light" - metabolic processes carried out by green plants where water and carbon dioxide is synthesized to form oxygen and organic compounds such as ATP and glucose. The process is enabled by trapping the energy from sunlight.
PHYSICAL MAP: A map of the locations of identifiable landmarks on DNA (e.g., restriction enzyme cutting sites, genes, RFLP markers), regardless of inheritance. Distance is measured in base pairs. For the human genome, the lowest-resolution physical map is the banding patterns of the 24 different chromosomes; the highest-resolution map would be the complete nucleotide sequence of the chromosomes.
PIDGIN : A pidgin is a mixed tongue which develops between neighbors or trading partners speaking different languages, for example 'pidgin English'. A creole is a pidgin which has matured to become a localized mother tongue. Pidgins have limited grammar and vocabulary resulting from their makeshift origin, but are creatively adaptive expressions never to be stereotyped as the result of 'primitive' thought processes.
PLASMID: An extrachromosomal, circular piece of DNA found in the cytoplasm and capable of replicating and segregating independently of the host chromosome. See vector . Found in cytoplasm of bacteria and in some eukaryotes. R-plasmids are those that carry gene for drug resistance and Col - plasmids that carry the gene for producing a protein, known as Colicins, conjugal plasmids transfer their properties to other members of the population, non-conjugal are non transmissible in nature.
PLEIOTROPIC EFFECT: The production of several unrelated changes in the characteristics of a cell or organism by a single genetic change. (DM)
PLURIPOTENT : Cells capable of differentiation into any type of organs or cell type.
PO: A word coined by Edward de Bono as a lateral-thinking tool to counter-force the ‘No’ of logical thinking. ‘Po’ i. It has some of the feel of po ssibility, hy po thesis sup po se and po tent, but rather opens up spaces ‘outside of reason’, a ‘holiday from the usual conventions of logic’, therefore more in the spirit of po etry. Po has not been the most successful of memes, but still has an intangible persuasiveness.
POLYGENIC DISORDERS: Genetic disorders resulting from the combined action of alleles of more than one gene (e.g., heart disease, diabetes, and some cancers). Although such disorders are inherited, they depend on the simultaneous presence of several alleles, thus the hereditary patterns are usually more complex than those of single-gene disorders. Compare single gene disorders . (DM)
POLYMERASE: An enzyme that assembles a number of similar or identical subunits into a macromolecule (e.g. DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase). (DM)
POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (PCR) - a technique for the rapid amplification of a specific nucleic acid sequence contained in a stretch of DNA. (DM)
POLYMORPHISM: Difference in DNA sequence among individuals. Genetic variations occurring in more than 1 percent of a population would be considered useful polymorphisms for genetic linkage analysis. Compare MUTATION. (DM)
POLYPLOID: Having a chromosome number that is greater than two of the monoploid number. Polyploid oysters were among the first non-naturally occurring, non-human, multicellular, living organisms to be declared patentable subject matter. Multiple chromosome sets in the nucleus are common in plants, but rare in animals. Eg. Triplid, teraploids.
POSITIVE EUGENICS: The achievement of systematic or planned genetic changes to improve individuals or their offspring.
PRAGMATISM: Actions which are based upon immediate practicalities rather than any theoretical considerations. In philosophy, pragmatism implies that the truth or content of a concept lies in its practical applicability or coherence with experience rather than theory.
PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE: An important modern concept for ecological, political and corporate management, the precautionary principle effectively states that "Where there are threats of serious or irreversible environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation" (1992 Australian Intergovernmental Agreement on the Environment). Lack of full scientific knowledge of impacts should not be used as an excuse for development, with the onus of responsibility on the developer. Threats of irreversible environmental damage should be considered guilty until proven innocent. The principle of caution involves leaving ecological space as room for ignorance. All efforts should be taken to prevent non-sustainable development, habitat destruction or degradation, release of chemicals into the environment, global climate change, and loss of biodiversity. It is a useful tool to flag ignorance and uncertainty about eventualities such as undesirable ecological, social or corporate impacts, and to hold policy until increased scientific understanding of a problem has been achieved. The precautionary principle should be especially considered in environmental impact assessment, risk analysis, hazard management, political diplomacy and the scientific development of dangerous knowledge or technology. Many believe that the principle should become an established guideline for all policy-makers.
PRIMER: A short piece of DNA that promotes DNA synthesis by providing a site for the action of the enzyme, DNA polymerase, to add nucleotides at one end of the primer.
PRIMITIVE STREAK: A pilling up of cells on the caudal end of the embryonic disc, providing the earliest evidence of the embryonic axis and the formation of the embryo proper. In human embryos this begins to occurs at about day 15. It is a progenitor of CNS. It is a boundary for embryo experiments to be allowed upto 14 days prior to streak development. (DM, IP)
PRIMORDIAL GERM CELL: precursor reproductive cells in an embryo or fetus. (JA)
PRIMUM NON NOCERE: 'Above all do no harm'. A principle widely cited in MEDICAL ETHICS (q.v.) that is stronger than DO NO HARM (q.v.). (MR)
PRIONS: Were first proposed by Stanley Prusiner in 1984. They consist of an infectious protein which multiplies by converting normal protein molecules into infectious forms by inducing the normal, benign molecules to change their shape which makes the altered protein, now a prion, resistant to protease breakdown in brain tissue. As a result, plaques and gaps form in the infected person’s brain giving Prion diseases the collective name of Spongiform Encephalopathy (see BOVINE SPONGIFORM ENCEPHALOPATHY). The formation of plaques in the brain of infected individualve decline in cognition and motor function and, ultimately, death. The misfolding of a normal protein into a Prion can be caused by a number of factors which include a) iatrogenic OGENIC & CREUTZFELDT-JAKOB DISEASE), 2) inherited 3) spontaneous mutation in individual’s genome. (IP)
PRIOR ART: That which is already known or available, part of the criteria of obviousness used in evaluating patent applications.
PROBE: A sequence ( DNA, RNA, oligo or cDNA) labelled with a radioactive or fluorescent compound that is used to detect a particular sequence in a mixture of nucleic acids. The probe hybridises specifically to its complementary nucleic acid sequence in the mixture, if this sequence is present. Being labelled, the target-probe duplex becomes visible, and can be recorded either as a +/- (for present/absent) signal in a dot or slot format, or as a band with a precise size in an autoradiography of a gel. Probes are mainly used to detect mutations and polymorphisms in DNA, or gene expression and transcript sizes in RNA.
PROTEIN: A large molecule composed of chains of smaller molecules (amino acids) in a specific sequence; the sequence is determined by the sequence of nucleotides in the gene coding for the protein. Built by 2 or more amino acids linked by polypeptide chain, CONH bonding, can be hydrolyzed. They are a major constituent of all living organisms. Eg. Muscle, enzymes (not all enzymes are proteins). Proteins are required for the structure, function ( e.g neurotransmitters ) and regulation of the body's cells, tissues and organs, and each protein has a unique function. Examples are hormones, enzymes and antibodies. (DM, JA)
PROTEIN ENGINEERING: Modification of the amino acid structure or the tertiary features of proteins (e.g. carbohydrate chains) with the purpose of modifying the functions of the proteins. (DM)
PROTEOME: hybrid term - PROTEins expressed by a genOME - applicable to industrial protein science describing the proteins expressed by a particular genome or tissue. Traditionally, proteins were examined one at a time; nowadays proteome systems can examine them en masse making accessible the temporal and spatial expression of proteins in biological systems, how they"re processed and modified, and how they interact to form functional complexes in a tissue or cell. The term "proteome" was introduced in 1994 by Australian scientist Marc Wilkins (see PROTEOMICS, GENOMICS). (IP)
PROTEOMICS: the term was first introduced into the scientific literature in 1995 to define the total protein complement of a genome and has become an integral part of gene-expression analysis. Proteomics concentrates on the separation and purification of many proteins concurrently from a complex mixture of proteins. While it had its origins more than 20 years ago, proteomics is a major technology now because of advances in protein science. Separation into pure molecules is typically done on a 2-dimensional matrix followed by identification and characterization by mass spectrometry. Proteomics is becoming the mainstay of functional genomics because, unlike the informational-based genome, proteins are the functional molecules of cells. Proteomics gained its modern profile through the formation of two national proteomics institutes: APAF (Australian Proteome Analysis Facility) founded by Keith Williams at Macquarie University in Sydney, Australia, and the Center for Proteome Analysis located at the University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark founded by Peter Mose-Larsen and Stephen Fey. The commercialization of proteomics has typically been in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries; however, future developments demand greater focus on bioinformatics where scientifically useful information gained from proteomics can be integrated into clinical and bioethical decision making
PSYCHIATRIC ETHICS : The ethics of psychiatric medicine has a large philosophical background because of the influence of those who, like Thomas Szasz, have convinced many people that many behaviour patterns which were once regarded as pathological, even criminally so, are only different from the norm. For this reason, in many societies today it is extremely difficult to hospitalise a person for psychiatric reasons unless they clearly endanger themselves or others. And even when they endanger others, it is difficult to keep them incarcerated.
The ethical principle of autonomy, usually expressed in terms of informed consent, is problematic in all others where the mental competence of the patient is borderline or unclear. This problem arises in paediatrics and geriatrics no less than in psychiatric medicine, with respect both in treatment and in research. It is often extremely difficult to tell whether the patient is really acting autonomously in giving or refusing consent. International guidelines for research on human subjects, like the oft-revised Helsinki Declaration, do not yet address this problem in much depth.
PUBERTY: (Latin: pubertas 'age of maturity') The developmental period of first becoming capable of sexual reproduction. It is marked by the adolescent growth spurt, maturation of the genital organs, development of secondary sexual characteristics, first ejaculation of sperm in boys and onset of menstruation (the menarche) in girls. There are also psychosocial characteristics resulting from the effects of increased gonadal sex steroid production and the resultant maturational changes in the central nervous system (CNS). Puberty normally occurs between ages of 9-13 in girls and 12-14 in boys
PUNCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM: A theory about the passage of evolution, formulated by Niles Eldridge and Stephen Jay Gould in 1972 to explain gaps in the fossil record. ‘Punctuated equilibrium’ is evolution progress may also be seen in political revolution, the paradigm shift and the passage of life.
QUANTUM: (Latin: quantus "how much") A quantum is the smallest indivisible unit, usually of energy. Radiation can only be absorbed in discrete whole quanta, and the energy content of a quantum is proportional to its natural vibration frequency (expressed by E=hv where E=quantum energy, h=Planck’s constant, v=radiation frequency). (See QUANTUM THEORY) (MP & IP)
QUANTUM COMPUTING: The application of quantum physics to computer science, a field of research pioneered by David Deutsch at Oxford University. The goal is to engineer a quantum computer which would be many magnitudes more powerful than electronic microchip technologies. This would be a calculating device utilizing the quantum properties of particles such as atoms, electrons, ions or photons to encode information. Groups of particles may provide exponential increases in calculating power, potentially allowing computations to be performed for any humanly imaginable problem and simulations for modeling or virtual reality to be run with incredible levels of complexity. New extensions to the 0-1 binary code which allow simultaneous parallel calculations are possible using quantum properties such as the superposition of electron spin states into an intermediate multiple state. Information at this scale may be measured in qubits (quantum bits). Nuclear magnetic resonance has achieved several qubits and other techniques are being investigated such as using the energy and vibration of trapped ions. The major obstacle is decoherence - disruption resulting from interaction with the environment. If the problem of decoherence is successfully tackled the next generation of computers will generate unimaginable powers and incredible technologies which would be highly valuable to commerce and the military. We will require global ethical maturity to manage any unknown risks. (See QUBIT, QUANTUM THEORY, COMPUTER, DNA COMPUTER) (MP)
QUANTUM ENTANGLEMENT: A condition in which a pair of quantum particles are intimately associated, or "entangled" with one another such that a measurement of one of the pair instantaneously influences characteristics of the other such as spin, despite any intervening distance between the two particles. Such quantum entanglement has been experimentally demonstrated despite apparently contradicting the view of Einstein, and has implications for philosophy, teleportation research, fiber-optic communications and quantum computing. (See QUANTUM COMPUTING, TELEPORTATION) (MP)
QUANTUM MECHANICS: Classical Newtonian mechanics no longer functions at atomic scales, and is replaced by quantum mechanics which describes the behavior of atoms and their component parts such as quarks, gluons and electrons, and other elementary particles such as photons and leptons. (See QUANTUM THEORY, CLASSICAL MECHANICS, QUARK, LEPTON, PHOTON) (MP)
QUANTUM THEORY: (Latin: quantus "how much" + Greek: theoria "speculation") Quantum theory is the branch of physics dealing with the fundamental particles of matter and their interaction with electromagnetic radiation. The theory was first pioneered by Max Planck in 1900 when his research indicated that for red-hot bodies classical laws failed to account for the expected distribution of energy between wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum. Planck suggested that physical systems can only have properties such as energy in discrete whole values; small packets of energy called quanta. Subsequent studies paved the way for the development of the quantum theory of matter, which is the foundation of all modern physics as well as much of chemistry. Einstein quantized light, demonstrating that light radiation behaves like particles as well as waves. Louis de Broglie expanded these insights into the field of wave mechanics, Niels Bohr quantized the angular momentum of electrons, Erwin Schrödinger developed the equation describing wave functions, Paul Dirac postulated antimatter, Richard Feynman investigated quantum electrodynamics, and Werner Heisenberg developed his uncertainty principle. Despite many of its axioms seeming paradoxical and contradictory to preconceived common-sense notions of reality, there is continued scientific evidence providing support for quantum theory. Quantum theory has applications to many technologies including quantum computing, fiber-optics and nuclear research.
QUARK: Subatomic particle. The term "quark" was coined by Murray Gell-Mann, apparently based upon the novel "Finnegan's Wake" by James Joyce. Page 363 of the novel begins "Three quarks for Muster Mark!". Quarks are considered to be a building block for protons and neutrons. Groups of three quarks form a proton or a neutron. Quarks are divided into six types, based on a quality termed "flavor". The flavors of quarks are: up, down, strange, charm, top, and bottom. The quarks constituting a proton or neutron are "held together" by gluons (see GLUON). Another quality of gluons is known as color. An "up" quark, for example, may be red, yellow, or blue. The term color in this context is not based on visual perception. (AG)
QUBIT: The qubit (quantum bit) is the unit of information in quantum computing. Unlike the bits and bytes of ordinary computers, a qubit can simultaneously be 0 and 1 in a superimposed state. Such multiple simultaneous calculations give quantum computing its potential extraordinary power. Two qubits can be superimposed into four states, three qubits into eight states, and several hundred qubits would be able to simultaneously make calculations equivalent to the number of atoms in the known universe.
RAINBOW SERPENT the giant snake is one of the more common forms utilized by the Australian Aboriginal Dreamtime Spirit Ancestors (see Dreamtime and Dreaming). In the North and Center of Australia, it was at the time of creation that the serpent began to move through the landscape marking its unique features; for example, the black rock snake called Kurrichalpongo from the Roper River country in the Northern Territory first carved out the rivers, rock formations, mountains and bush, then ascended into the sky turning into the rainbow serpent to guide down thunder and lightning to flood the land. The Rainbow Serpent’s jo creator called "Biamee"
READING: There is more to reading than meets the eye, just as there is more information than can absorbed in one lifetime. The essential concept in ‘speed reading’ is not to ‘read aloud’ words in your mind, a natural limit to your reading rate. Instead take in chunks of text at once – a concept at a time – absorbing the information without ‘hearing’ it in words. Useful related attributes are ‘scanning’ (reading ‘past’ the text to identify certain keywords), ‘skimming’ (quickly reading headlines and first paragraphs to ‘get the gist’), and ‘referencing’ (using thehe imagination, allowing pause for reflection, developing thought and emotion, and of course providing pleasure.
RECOMBINANT DNA: Hybrid DNA sequences assembled in vitro from different sources; or hybrid DNA sequences from the same source assembled in vitro in a novel configuration. Research using biologically active DNA which has been formed in the laboratory by the joining of segments of DNA from different sources. (DM)
RECOMBINANT DNA ADVISORY COMMITTEE (RDAC) : A Competent authority/committee of the Department of Biotechnology to review developments in biotechnology at national and international levels and to recommend suitable and appropriate safety regulations for a country (India) in recombinant research, use and applications from time to time. (JA)
RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGIES: Procedures used to join together DNA segments in a cell-free system (an environment outside of a cell or organism). A recombinant DNA molecule can enter a cell and replicate there, either autonomously or after it has become integrated into a cellular chromosome.
REDUCTIO AD ABSURDUM: Latin for “reduction to absurdity”, reductio ad absurdum, related to quasi-reductio, refers to refutation of an argument by reducing it to simpler elements thus exposing hidden absurdity.
REPLICATION: 1. In statistics and experimental design, replication is the use of a significantly large number of experimental subjects, repeats of the treatments or observations, and duplication of the research methods. (See REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE, EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS, CONTROL GROUPS) 2. One of the defining qualities of life, replication is the ability to make copies of oneself. (See REPLICATOR, LIFE) 3. The synthesis of new DNA strands from existing DNA. In human beings and other eucaryotes, replication occurs in the nucleus of a cell. (See DNA) (DM & MP)
REPLICATOR: A complex structure able to copy and reproduce itself using materials from its surrounding environment. This often implies identical replication, although many replicators copy with variation. Examples of replicators include some chemicals (e.g. crystal structures), genetic code (e.g. RNA, DNA), organisms (e.g. plants, humans), information (e.g. memes, ideas) and software programming (e.g. computer viruses, artificial life). Replication is one of the essential definitional components of life.
RES NULLIUS: in Latin "belonging to no one"
RESOLUTION: Degree of molecular detail on a physical map of DNA, ranking from low to high.
RESPIRATION: (Latin respirare 'to breathe'). The term can be applied to the events which occur at the level of the whole organism (i) or its constituent cells (ii). (i) The breathing pattern or rhythmic inflation and deflation of the lungs which maintains a steady concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide for cellular metabolism. The control of respiration is partly chemical and partly nervous. (ii) Cellular respiration - the oxidation of the end products of glycolysis (the enzymic breakdown of glucose to pyruvic acid) to carbon dioxide and water (the tricarboxylic acid cycle) with the generation of 36 molecules of ATP per glucose molecule. Aerobic respiration involves the molecular exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide within the body's tissues
RESTRICTION ENZYME, ENDONUCLEASE: A protein that recognizes specific, short nucleotide sequences and cuts DNA at those sites. There are over 400 such enzymes in bacteria that recognize over 100 different DNA sequences. See restriction enzyme cutting site . (DM)
RESTRICTION ENZYME CUTTING SITE: A specific nucleotide sequence of DNA at which a restriction enzyme cuts the DNA. Some sites occur frequently in DNA, every several hundred base pairs, but others occur much less frequently, may be every 10,000 base pairs.
RETROVIRUS: A family of Viruses whose genetic material is RNA and is further characterized by the presence of reverse transcriptase in the virion. They can convert RNA to DNA and back to RNA. HIV is a retrovirus.
REVIEW COMMITTTE ON GENETIC MANIPULATION (RCGM): A Competent authority/committee of the Department of Biotechnology to monitor the safety related aspects in respect or on-going research projects and activities involving genetically engineered organism/hazardous microorganism. It is members may be drawn from other Government departments such as Indian Council of Medical Research. The function of review committee may include prescribing the procedures, restricting or prohibiting production, sale importation and use of such genetically engineered organisms and their cellular components. (JA)
REVERSE GENETICS: Process that involves production of DNA from RNA in the reverse direction to the central dogma of molecular biology. Applied to consider the genetic technology of producing living organisms from dead (frozen /preserved in alcohol) organism's DNA materials. E.g. Frozen mammoth.
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE: An enzyme capable of directing the production of a single-strand DNA copy from an RNA template.
RFLP, RESTRICTION FRAGMENT LENGTH POLYMORPHISM: Variation in DNA fragment sizes cut by restriction enzymes; polymorphic sequences that are responsible for RFLPs are used as markers on genetic linkage maps.
RIBOSOMAL RNA, rRNA: A class of RNA found in the ribosomes of cells.
RIBOSOME: The small cellular organelle where polypeptides are assembled from amino acids based on messenger RNA templates.
RICIN: A deadly toxin obtained from castor bean Ricinus communis that produces agglutination of red blood cells and hemorrhage of the respiratory and gastrointestinal mucosa. The toxin has been used as a biological weapon in the hands of terrorists
RNA, RIBONUCLEIC ACID: A chemical found in the nucleus and cytoplasm of cells; it plays an important role in protein synthesis and other chemical activities of the cell. There are several classes of RNA molecules, including messenger RNA, transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA and other small RNAs, each serving a different purpose. Contains uracil as a base pair. Similar to DNA in structure and plays an intermediary role in converting information from DNA to ribosomes where proteins are made. (DM,JA)
RNAi: Double stranded interference RNA, can destroy messenger RNA sequence, can slice any gene.
ROBUST: Able to withstand utilization; for example robust machinery is tough and long-lasting, and a robust model is able to stand up to model testing such as sensitivity analysis.
SCIENCE FICTION: Science fiction is imaginative fantasy based on science. There is a distinction between "soft" and "hard" science fiction, the latter adhering as closely as possible to current understanding of physical laws and the limitations of technology. Leading "hard" science fiction authors such as Arthur C. Clark and Isaac Asimov have predicted and guided significant real advances in technology such as satellites and robotics. Science fiction, from the classic tradition to cyberpunk and including the utopian and dystopian literature, is of course a vibrant source of bioethical discussion. The genre entertainingly places human and alien societies in potential future contexts of science, technology and sociopolitical organization.
SELF AWARENESS: Self-awareness includes consciousness of: a) Continuity of perception and personality through time; b) Unity of self; c) Embodiment or body image; d) Agency such as free will; e) Awareness of one’s own character, strengths, weaknesses, desires and wellbeing.
SEMANTICS: The branch of semiotics which investigates the relation of a sign, usually a word or phrase, to the concept which is being signified. In other words, semantics is a study of meaning. The term "a semantic difference" is used as a rebuttal to imply that a difference is only verbal therefore irrelevant, but differences in semantics may technically just as easily be significant changes to meaning.
SEMIOTICS: (Greek: semeion "sign") Semiotics or semiology refer to the study of signs, or the ways in which we create meaning in communication. Semiology was coined by Ferdinand de Saussure as a method of cultural analysis, and is a study in which meanings are interpretative rather than truly objective. Linguistics, the study of language, is one of the more formalized and precise branches of semiotics. In our internationalized world of advertising and multimedia, there must be broad consideration of cultural conventions, codes, symbols and multimodal methods of communication. Interpretation of such signs is required to assess the ethics, or lack thereof, which feature in the content and spread of local and global cultures.
SENSES : In order to live in and to be able to adapt to the external environment, all living organisms must be able to communicate with it. Similarly communication is necessary for the stimulation, regulation and co-ordination of activities within the body. In both cases communication involves a cycle of receiving, collating and giving information. The brain receives communication from the outside the body through the five special senses - sight, hearing, smell, taste and touch. Although the senses are considered different and separate from each other, one sense is rarely used on its own; for example, taste and smell are closely associated with the enjoyment of food. The somatic or common senses originating in the skin are pain, touch, heat and cold. Proprioceptor senses originate in muscles and joints and contribute to the maintenance of balance and posture; that is, pertaining to the sensations of body movements and awareness of posture. Autonomic afferent nerves originate in internal organs and tissues and are associated with reflex regulation activity and visceral pain. Nerve endings are stimulated by phenomena outside the body and the resultant nerve impulses are transmitted to the brain by nerve fibers for 'interpretation' or perception. The brain collates this information obtained from the memory, and the result is coordinated and regulated communication with the outside world
SEVEN DEADLY SINS: In theology, the sins of anger, pride, lust, envy, covetousness, gluttony and sloth.
SITE-DIRECTED MUTAGENESIS: The modification of a DNA sequence at a location that is precisely controlled. (DM)
SITUATIONALISM: The position that ethical action must be judged in each situation guided by, but not directly determined by, rules
SLIPPERY SLOPE : A phrase from bioethicists' professional slang, it refers to a situation in which one starts by doing something which is morally acceptable, or at worst borderline, and then "slides down the slope" towards doing things which are positively bad. Euthanasia in Holland, for example, is supposed to be allowed under only very strict conditions, including the stipulation that it must be only at the patient's request, and that the patient must be conscious. But it has been debated whether this has lead to a slippery slope, which has resulted in a situation where euthanasia has been performed on patients in coma, and on neonates.
STEM CELL (SC): Undifferentiated cell precursor to a number of differentiated (specialized) cell types, found in both tissues of adult and embryos. Many kinds, totipotent, pluripotent, unique property, like in dividing cells some daughter cells differentiate into specific cell type (brain, blood) while other remain as SC, do tissue repair and cell replacement, essential for life, eg. renewal of vital tissues. Embryonic stem (ES) cells found in early stages of embryonic development retain their extraordinary ability to differentiate into any other cell type. Eg. heart, muscle, blood (ES cells) (See Embryonic germ cells). Hematopoietic stem cells are a type of SC found in blood. Sources 1. Aborted human fetal tissue, 2. Human embryos produced in IVF treatment, but embryos produced by nuclear transfer (cloning technology).
SWARM INTELLIGENCE: Media terminology for integrated wireless communication and artificial neural networking of ‘smart dust’ microprocessors or likely future robot, mote or nanobot networks.
SYNESTHESIA: (Greek: syn 'together' + aisthetikos 'capacity for perception/sensitivity') A phenomenon in which sensations of two or more modalities accompany one another; for example a visual sensation is experienced when a particular sound is heard, or a smell is experienced on seeing images on a TV screen, or the different letters of the alphabet are seen in differing but specific personal colors. The phenomenon is also termed secondary sensation and can be dramatically induced in some drug states, presumably through the loss of the normal inhibitory mechanisms which isolate the central processing of the senses (Greek syn together + aisthetikos capacity for perception/sensitivity).
TASTE : (Middle English tasten 'to taste'). The sense of perceiving different flavors in soluble substances. Taste buds are found in the papillae of the tongue, soft palate, pharynx and epiglottis and consist of small bundles of cells and nerve endings of the glosspharyngeal, facial and vagus nerves (cranial nerves VII, IX & X). Chemical substances in solution that enter the taste buds stimulate the nerve cells which transmit impulses to the thalamus of the brain and then to the taste area in the cerebral cortex where taste is perceived. There are four fundamental sensations of taste - sweet, sour, bitter and salt; however, this is probably an oversimplification because perception varies widely and many 'tastes' cannot be easily classified. (See SENSES). (IP)
TAXIS the ability of a wide variety of microorganisms, simple animals and plants to respond to light, magnetic fields and chemical substances in the surrounding environment
THRESHOLD: An edge, entrance or starting point; the point at which some process begins, comes true or ceases; the minimum strength at which a stimulus is perceived.
TRANSCRIPTION: The synthesis of mRNA from a sequence of DNA (a gene); the first step in gene expression.
TRANSDUCTION: The transfer of genetic material from one cell to another by means of a virus or bacteriophage. (DM)
TRANSFER RNA, tRNA: A class of RNA having structures with triplet nucleotide sequences that are complementary to the triplet nucleotide coding sequences of mRNA. The role of tRNAs in protein synthesis is to bond with amino acids and transfer them to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized according to the instructions carried by mRNA. Chemical (transfer ribonucleic acid) responsible for carrying individual AMINO ACIDS (q.v.) within a cell so that PROTEINS (q.v.) of the appropriate type can be assembled from instructions provided by GENES (q.v.). (DM+MR+GK)
TRANSFORMATION: Introduction and assimilation of DNA from one organism into another via uptake of naked DNA. (DM)
TRANSGENIC : An organism (can be plant or animal) in which a foreign gene (a transgene) or DNA sequence, is incorporated into its genome early in development. The transgene is present in both somatic and germ cells, is expressed in one or more tissues, and is inherited by the offspring. A variety containing a foreign gene with the process of genetic engineering - from one species to another. Commonly refers to movement of genes between unrelated species, plants, animals, bacteria, humans, unknown in nature, mediated by humans through genetic manipulation.
VECTOR: DNA molecule originating from a virus, a bacterium, or the cell of a higher organism used to carry additional DNA base pairs; vectors introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where it can be reproduced in large quantities. Examples are plasmics, cosmids and yeast artificial chromosomes.
VIABLE: Alive - capable of replication like a cell or DNA in a cell.
VIROID: One of the simplest examples of life or proto-life, a viroid is a short circle or coil of unprotected RNA.
VIRUS : (Latin: 'slime' or 'poison') Any of a large group of sub-microscopic organisms comprised of a protein coat with genetic material in the form of a nucleic acid molecule (DNA or RNA, double or single strand, linear or circular). A virus is however unable to reproduce outside the host cell of another plant or animal, and for this reason is often not included within the definition of life. Viruses nevertheless live at the borderlines, providing insight into the nature and processes of life and evolution. Some viruses are pathogenic to plants and animals, for example causing human diseases including the common cold, herpes, measles, smallpox and HIV/AIDS.
VISION : (Latin visus 'vision') 1. Exceptional strategic perception and foresight, a characteristic of effective leadership. The visionary leader's concepts may appear idealistic or unrealistic, but vision is based on a higher order of perception concerned with fundamental insights, the big picture, and projection of current concerns into the future. 2. The sense of sight. The eye is the organ that provides vision, situated in the orbital cavity and supplied by the optic nerve or second cranial nerve. Structurally the two eyes are separate but, unlike the ear, some of their activities are coordinated so that they function as a pair; for example, it is possible to see with one eye but three-dimensional vision is impaired when only one eye is used. Light waves, which travel at a speed of 300,000 km per second, are reflected into the eyes by objects within the field of vision. Light is a combination of all colors of the visual (rainbow) spectrum; that is, red, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. The spectrum of light is broad but only a small part is visible to the human eye. Beyond the long end there are infrared (heat), radar and radio waves; beyond the short end are ultraviolet (uv), x-ray and cosmic waves. Other animals can see differing spectra; for example the honeybee can see uv light - an evolutionary adaptation to its way of life. A specific color is perceived when one wavelength is reflected by an object and all others are absorbed; for example, an object appears red when only red wavelength is reflected, white when all wavelengths are reflected and black when they are all absorbed. The light reflected from objects within the visual field is focused on the retinas of both eyes. Before reaching the retina light rays pass successively through the conjunctiva, cornea, aqueous fluid, lens and vitreous body - all are denser than air and with the exception of the lens they have a constant refractive power close to that of water. It is the elastic structure of the lens which changes the refraction, bending all the light rays in order to focus them onto the retina (light from distant objects needs least refraction and as an object comes closer the amount required increases). Looking at near objects tires the eyes more quickly due to the continuous use of the ciliary muscle suspending the lens - adding credit to precautionary advice about close work, especially at computer terminals. The retina is the photosensitive part of the eye, with the light-sensitive cells called the rods and cones. Light rays cause chemical changes in photosensitive pigments in these cells, which emit nerve impulses that pass to the visual lobes of the cerebrum via the optic nerves. It is in the brain where perception of different colors takes place. The eye is a delicate organ which is protected by several structures such as eyebrows, eyelids, eyelashes and lacrimal (tear) glands.
VNTR (Variable Number of Tandem Repeats) : Short repeated sequence of 11-16bp: GGAGGTGGGCAGGA[A/G]G. The presence of c core sequences favors the high unequal recombination rate (10 fold, compare, accounting therefore for its high polymorphism and usefulness in linkage or forensic analyses.
WEDGE ARGUMENT : Ethical argument which asserts that one morally questionable action or policy will set a precedent for, or lead to, other actions or policies which are even more morally questionable.
WORM: 1. Self-propagating computer program or software fragment, usually with potential for illicit damage to data and normal operations. In metaphor with biological parasitic worms, use of the term dates from the rebel 'tapeworm' program of John Brunner's 1975 science fiction novel The Shockwave Rider. A worm differs from a computer virus in its autonomous ability to tunnel segments of its programming across networked computers without having to latch onto a program or data file. (See COMPUTER VIRUS) 2. Generalized term for elongate invertebrates such as annelids and parasitic worms like nematodes.
WORMS : Infection by parasitic worms, organisms which complete part of their life-cycle in the intestine, liver or bloodstream of a host body. Intestinal worms and other health implications associated with unclean water are common across much of the less-developed world. Examples of parasitic worms include nematodes, tapeworms, hookworms, roundworms, pinworms, flatworms and flukes.
WRONGFUL LIFE : In civil law, a cause of action which alleges that a defendant has wrongfully caused a child to be born.
X-LINKED: Genes carried on the X chromosome.
XENOTRANSPLANTATION : involves the removal of an organ/s, tissue/s or cell/s from one animal species donor organism and transplanted to a human being. Xeno = other than /different. One animal to a different animals transpecies implantation (JA+IP)
XYLEM: Vascular tissue of angiosperm plants, involved in the transport of water with its dissolved minerals and nutrients
YIN AND YANG: The two forces in the universe in traditional Chinese terms, which are both in opposition and complementary to each other. Yin and Yang represent the positive and negative forces in the universe, and these can be perceived in every aspect of the universe. Although they may be labelled as "positive" and "negative", one is not preferred over the other. Rather it is more along the lines of positive and negative existing in electrical currents. Both are integral aspects of electricity. As with the five elements (see Five Elements), Yin and Yang should ideally be in balance. If an imbalance develops in either direction, this can generate problems of various types. The concepts of Yin and Yang are important for traditional Chinese medicine.
YUK FACTOR : A term used to indicate the ethical acceptability of any type of experimental engineering procedures. Foe example can a cow be used as a “milk producing machine” due to genetically enevelopment from the conception to zygote to embryo to fetus when exactly one can recognize human personhood?
ZYGOTE: The fertilized egg; the single cell that is formed when the two haploid sets of chromosomes in the pronuclei of the male and female gametes come together at syngamy. Also used loosely to refer to the early embryo during the first few weeks. The single cell resulting from the syngamy of nuclei from sperm and egg after fertilization